Golf

Warkworth Golf Course, Northumberland, Copyright Walter Baxter

Our most recent HEIF funding was allocated on the basis of a 'Making Links' project which aims to promote the sustainable use and shared experience of best practices in coastal dune management amongst the distinctive community of the dune golf courses in England, Wales and Scotland. It has been recognised for some time what a significant role these 'links' golf courses can play in meeting the targets for biodiversity conservation in the UK.

We aim to bring together professionals from the golf world; course managers, greenkeepers and those already involved in golf-environment initiatives, with professionals from the world of conservation and sustainability. The network's key purpose is to facilitate knowledge exchange including sharing of good (and poor) practice.

The goals of the 'Making Links' project are to:-

• Improve golf dune management practices through the promotion of linkages, use of science and the exchange of understandings between stakeholders in this community.
• Encourage the appropriate management of sand dunes by preparing and disseminating updated guidance material.
• Increase the capability of those charged with the responsibility for the management of links golf courses.
• Bridge an identified gulf between the golf industry, statutory agencies and conservation science.
• Promote a ‘habitat based’ and ‘evidence informed’ approach to the solution of shared resource management issues which will assist the achievement of conservation objectives and contribute to an improved and sustained performance for the golf industry.
• Encourage golf course management policies and practices which are sympathetic to the flora and fauna of sand dune systems.
• Ensure lessons from EU LIFE projects are widely disseminated and incorporated into good practice.

Links golf courses

The term 'links' historically applies specifically to strips of land in seaside areas that feature sandy soil, dunes and undulating topography, and where the land is not conducive to the easy cultivation of vegetation or trees.

Sir Walter Simpson was a 19th century Scottish philosopher and author of the 1887 book "the Art of Golf". He defined "links" as such

"The grounds on which golf is played are called links, being the barren sandy soil from which the sea has retired in recent geological times. In their natural state links are covered with long, rank bent grass and gorse. Links are too barren for cultivation: but sheep, rabbits, geese and professionals pick up a precarious livelihood on them."

A traditional links course will have many - perhaps all - of the following features: 

The course is built along the seaside	Crown Copyright
The soil is sandy and drains easily
The course is laid out naturally, so that unusual bumps and slopes in the fairways and greens remain, rather than being smoothed over
The rough features natural seaside grasses
Bunkers are numerous, very small and very deep (to keep the seaside breezes from blowing the sand away)
Fairways are rarely (if ever) watered and play firm and fast
Links courses usually have few if any trees
The course routes out and back. The No. 1 hole begins at the clubhouse and the front nine plays straight out so that No. 9 is farthest hole from the clubhouse; the direction turns back in at No. 10 and the course ends with No. 18 back at the clubhouse

Golf and the environment 

Among all the major land-based sports, golf has probably the strongest interaction with the environment.

6,000 golf courses in Europe, covering 250,000 to 300,000ha (Hammond & Hudson, 2007)

2,600 in UK covering 0.7% of land area (Tanner & Gange, 2005)

This interaction can be viewed as a threat or an opportunity and the large number of Links courses in the UK has prompted the Network to specifically consider the sport's interaction with sand dune habitats. The Sand Dune Habitat Action Plan acknowledges that golf has a significant impact on sand dune habitat and there is a need to encourage golf course management policies and practices which are sympathetic to the flora and fauna of sand dune systems.

Golf courses take up relatively large areas of the coast which can be positive as they prevent more intrusive development taking place in sensitive dune habitat. Their large area also means thay can provide viable habitat for wildlife populations and contain a variety of habitat niches supporting a greater diversity of plants and animals. In relation to the surrounding countryside, they can connect up 'islands' of natural areas which may have become isolated or fragmented because of urban development. In this way they are said to act as wildlife 'corridors'. Non playing areas can typically make up 25 – 40% of the total course area so there is significant potential for golf courses to provide the habitat niches and corridors without affecting the practicalities of the game.

Copyright USDA, click picture for more
information on corridors

Royal Birkdale Golf Club from the air. Development on the scale of the nearby town has been prevented by the presence of the golf club. Wildlife can move from the large area of scrub to the South into non playing areas on the course and vice versa. Unfortunately a road slices through the dunes meaning wildlife is prevented from moving between foredune and backdune areas.

Practical Measures on Golf Courses

TREES

On a sand dune, artificial plantations of conifers are common and these may seed into adjacent areas such as golf courses. The majority of these tree species are non-native and can do great damage to sand dune ecosystems.

 

Left: Mixed age birch-oak woodland copyright Richard Webb            Right: Dead tree (snag) on a golf course copyright Glyn Baker      

A diverse mix of species and ages is best for wildlife. Different animals and plants utilise trees at different stages in the tree's life and differences in the physical sturcture of the tree stand provide a greater variety of habitats to use. Practically, this can take the form of thinning non-natives which is good for species diversity and planting immature native species on say a 5-10 year cycle.

If there is no wooded areas on or near the golf course that can be extended, patches of habitat with scrub or trees can act as semi-corridors and provide cover for wildlife in open areas (click the diagram above to learn how a stepping stone corridor works).

Little active management is needed in wooded areas  which function best when left undisturbed. Leaf litter and undergrowth can be left to build up which provides habitat for invertebrates and fungi as well as assisting the nutrient cycling which occurs naturally in a woodland area.

It is obviously important to consider the placement of trees in terms of both course playability and turf management. For example trees should never be planted South East of greens and tees as this restricts morning sunlight penetration. Shading and restricted air circulation beneath trees create problems for turf grasses such as enhanced disease pressure necessitating increased fertiliser/pesticide. When considering which species to plant it is important to know that some non-native trees such as Norway Maple restrict grass growth. Their growing season is longer with leaves appearing earlier and falling later leading to stunted grass growth below trees and increasing the likelihood of fungal disease on turf.

GRASSLAND

Which grass?

Choosing a grass which is best adapted to the local climate means a reduction in the amount of fertiliser and water required and makes grass less susceptible to disease.

Bentgrass Agrostis spp. is a grass often used on golf courses in northern Europe. The bentgrass varieties have many advantages as they can be mowed to a very short height and are ideal for highly-manicured areas such as tees, greens and fairways. There are various types but browntop bents (Agrostis capillaris) are well adapted for maritime and coastal climates while creeping bent is commonly used, especially on greens, in both cool and some warm climate regions. In the roughs nearest the sea, the grass is likely to be predominantly marram grass (Ammophila areneria) which thrives when exposed to moving sand, wind and salt spray. Therefore in the sheltered areas on a golf course, it may look yellow and stunted as its growth is stimulated by sand burial. Other grasses will develop in the roughs according to the fertility of the soils and what species are found locally.

Carnoustie Links Copyright Richard Webb

Getting started

It is a good idea to start with a small area to evaluate establishment methods and chosen plant suitability if you are attempting to alter your course over the long term.

In terms of timing, planting in early autumn takes advantage of a favourable soil temperature and decreased weed pressure.

If native grass is being established from seed – minimum or no tillage is best to discourage the germination of weed seed, drill seeding is preferable where possible. Fertility generally favours the development of weeds over native plants so minimal fertiliser should be applied.

Waiting for results

During the 1st year or so of establishment, grasses allocate 70% of their energy to root development so visible growth may seem stunted.

Mowing the establishing grassland can help to reduce weed pressure by inhibiting photosynthesis. As the grass is developing its root systems during this phase it is less affected by this process.

Established grassland

Think carefully about which areas must be manicured and which areas could stand to be no-mow areas. Reduced management of grassland areas supports invertebrate communities and helps provide food resources for insectivorous birds.

In terms of the roughs, the timing of management is crucial to assist wildlife and determine the type of rough which develops. Traditionally in grasslands and meadows, longer grasses would have been grazed creating a more open structure and this removal of biomass meant the grassland was nutrient balanced. In the absence of this grazing pressure, finer grasses can be outcompeted by scrub or rank grasses which take advantage of higher nutrient levels. Although the recently created Machrihanish Dunes  course   has managed to incorporate sheep grazing, the fragmented nature of dune systems means a grazing regime is not often practical for golf courses.

Cutting the roughs is an activity which will vary in style according to what the desired outcome is. The timing of the cut will determine the type of grassland which results e.g. a cut early in the year can create good conditions for summer species. This page on Royal St. David’s course in Wales gives a helpful account of the rough grassland management which takes place on this SSSI links golf course. Their nine year experiments to determine the most effective cutting regime for the roughs has revealed that a cut every three years combined with scarifying is sufficient to maintain a reasonably tidy rough with a structure conducive to finer grass and wildflower species.

Timing is also crucial to avoid ground nesting birds such as skylark (Alauda arvensis) which breed between March and August. To be on the safe side and if information is available, it would be better to start with those parts of the rough which are not utilised by birds.

Wildflowers

If establishing wildflowers these do not perform well in shade or areas with high traffic. Pick a sunny well drained out of the way area. Wildflower areas may require annual or biennial seeding to prevent one perennial species dominating the stand. This short leaflet from the Bumblebee conservation trust outlines how best to choose and establish wildflowers for species rich meadows but is equally applicable to creating dune grassland habitats.

As with trees, using native plants is desirable as they attract native pollinators, giving rise to a symbiotic relationship. The loss of native pollinators is a threat to native plants and vice versa; golf courses offer an opportunity to cultivate the specific relationships which exist between native plant and pollinator.


Peacock butterfly on dune wildflowers, Gullane                                                                                     Bumblebee, Copyright Gary Rodgers   Copyright Richard Webb                                                    

Transitions

One important thing to consider is the diversity of habitats – providing many different types of habitat will attract many more types of wildlife. Ecotones are transition habitats which can add value to a wildlife habitat, providing a range of places to shelter, forage, breed, nest and for different wildlife communities to interact. A golf course  can demonstrate this idea simply: If the majority of the course is intensively mowed with a short sward, there is really only one habitat. If it is sensitively cut and mowed, there will be a variety of grass lengths and structures as well as scrub and trees providing lots of habitats. The edges of wooded and scrub areas, riparian habitat (water edges), the transition from green to fairway to rough and from grassland to scrub to forest are good examples of ecotones. Avoid stark transitions like straight lines; irregular borders and gradual transitions are favourable.

GEO The Golf Environment Organisation

Paul Rooney, Director of the Sand Dune and Shingle Network is a founding trustee and member of the Advisory Council of the Golf Environment Organisation.  

R&A Best Practice Guides

The experience of working with links golf  as part of the Sefton Coast Life Project is written up in Section 4 of 'Coastal Dune Management - Shared Experience of European Conservation Practice'  J.A Houston, S.E. Edmundson and P.J. Rooney (2001) Liverpool University Press.

Network staff at Liverpool Hope University made significant contributions to the hole by hole Open Championship Guides produced for the Royal Birkdale Golf Club (1998) and the Royal Lytham and St. Anne's Golf Club (2001)

 View content adapted from the booklet   

Donald Trump

This interaction has been more prominent lately with the decision by the Scottish Government to allow Donald Trump to develop a new golf course on a SSSI sand dune system of national importance. For more information on the development see Scottish Wildlife Trust's campaign page. Also, Trump's own website gives some details of the project but is currently under construction. This development has angered not only conservationists but those in the golf world too, who feel that Trump's ambitions reflect badly on the whole golf community, many of whom are striving for greater sustainability.  

References

Hammond, R.A. and Hudson, M.D., 2007. Environmental management of UK golf courses for biodiversity - attitudes and actions. Landscape and Urban Planning 83: pp. 127 - 136

Scottish Golf Environment Group (SGEG), 2004. Nature conservation and golf course development. Available here

Tanner, R.A. and Gange, A.C., 2005. Effects of golf courses on local biodiversity. Landscape and Urban Planning 71: pp. 183 - 197

Nelson, M., 1997. Establishing natural areas on the golf course. USGA Green Section Record 35 (6): pp. 7 - 11
Available here